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Troy (Ancient Greek: Τροία, Troia or Τροίας, Troias and Ἴλιον, Ilion or Ἴλιος, Ilios; Latin: Troia and Ilium;[note 1] Hittite: Wilusha or Truwisha;[1][2] Turkish: Truva or Troya) was a city in the far northwest of the region known in late Classical antiquity as Asia Minor, now known as Anatolia in modern Turkey, just south of the southwest mouth of the Dardanelles strait and northwest of Mount Ida. The present-day location is known as Hisarlik. It was the setting of the Trojan Wardescribed in the Greek Epic Cycle, in particular in the Iliad, one of the two epic poems attributed to Homer. Metrical evidence from the Iliad and the Odysseysuggests that the name Ἴλιον (Ilion)
formerly began with a digamma: Ϝίλιον(Wilion); this is also supported by the Hittite name for what is thought to be the same city, Wilusa.
A new capital
called Ilium (from Greek: Ἴλιον, Ilion)
was founded on the site in the reign of the Roman Emperor Augustus. It flourished
until the establishment of Constantinople, became a
bishopric and declined gradually in the Byzantine era, but is now a
Latin Catholic titular see.
In 1865, English
archaeologist Frank Calvert excavated
trial trenches in a field he had bought from a local farmer at Hisarlik, and in 1868, Heinrich Schliemann, a wealthy
German businessman and archaeologist, also began excavating in the area after a
chance meeting with Calvert in Çanakkale.[3][4] These
excavations revealed several cities built in succession. Schliemann was at
first skeptical about the identification of Hisarlik
with Troy, but was persuaded by Calvert[5] and took
over Calvert's excavations on the eastern half of the Hisarlik
site, which was on Calvert's property. Troy VII has been
identified with the city called Wilusa by the Hittites (the probable origin of
the Greek Ἴλιον) and is
generally (but not conclusively) identified with Homeric Troy.
Today, the hill
at Hisarlik has given its name to a small village
near the ruins, which supports the tourist trade visiting the Troia archaeological site.[6] It lies
within the province of Çanakkale, some 30 km south-west of the
provincial capital, also called Çanakkale. The
nearest village is Tevfikiye. The map here shows the
adapted Scamander estuary with Ilium a little way inland across the Homeric
plain. Due to Troy's location near the Aegean Sea, the Sea of Marmara, and the
Black Sea, it was a central hub for the military and trade.[7]
Troy was added to the UNESCO World Heritage list in
1998.
Contents
·
1Homeric Troy
·
2Search for Troy
o
2.1Schliemann
o
2.2Dörpfeld and Blegen
o
2.3Korfmann
o
2.4Recent developments
·
3Fortifications of the
city
·
4Historical Troy uncovered
o
4.1Troy I–V
§ 4.1.1Schliemann's Troy II
o
4.2Troy VI and VII
§ 4.2.1Calvert's Thousand-Year
Gap
o
4.3Troy VIII
o
4.4Troy IX
·
5Classical Ilium (Ilion)
o
5.1Ecclesiastical history
o
5.2Titular see
·
6Alternative views
o
6.1Location
o
6.2Hittite and Egyptian
records
o
6.3In later legend
·
7See also
·
8Notes
·
9References
·
10Sources and external
links
·
11Further reading
Further information: Homeric Question, Historicity of the Iliad, and Troy VII
Portion of the
walls of Troy (VII)
Map of the Troad,
including the site of Troy
Ancient Greek historians variously
placed the Trojan War in the 12th, 13th, or 14th centuries BC: Eratosthenes to
1184 BC, Herodotus to
1250 BC, and Duris of Samos to
1334 BC. Modern archaeologists associate Homeric Troy with
archaeological Troy VII.[8]
In the Iliad, the Achaeans set up
their camp near the mouth of the River Scamander(presumably
modern Karamenderes),[9] where they
beached their ships. The city of Troy itself stood on a hill, across the plain
of Scamander, where the battles of the Trojan War took place. The site of the
ancient city is some 5 km from the coast today, but 3,000 years ago the
mouths of Scamander were much closer to the city,[10] discharging
into a large bay that formed a natural harbor, which has since been filled
with alluvial material.
Recent geological findings have permitted the identification of the ancient
Trojan coastline, and the results largely confirm the accuracy of the Homeric
geography of Troy.[11]
In November 2001, the geologist John
C. Kraft from the University of Delaware and the
classicist John V. Luce from Trinity College, Dublin, presented the
results of investigations, begun in 1977, into the geology of the region.[12] They
compared the present geology with the landscapes and coastal features described
in the Iliad and other classical sources, notably Strabo's Geographia, and concluded
that there is a regular consistency between the location of Schliemann's Troy
and other locations such as the Greek camp, the geological evidence,
descriptions of the topography and
accounts of the battle in the Iliad.[13][14][15]
Besides the Iliad, there
are references to Troy in the other major work attributed to Homer, the Odyssey, as well as in
other ancient Greek literature (such as Aeschylus's Oresteia). The Homeric
legend of Troy was elaborated by the Roman poet Virgil in
his Aeneid. The Greeks and
Romans took for a fact the historicity of the Trojan
War and the identity of Homeric Troy with the site in
Anatolia. Alexander the Great, for example,
visited the site in 334 BC and there made sacrifices at tombs associated
with the Homeric heroes Achilles and Patroclus.
After the 1995
find of a Luwian biconvex
seal at Troy VII, there has been a heated discussion over the language that was spoken
in Homeric Troy. Frank Starke of the University of Tübingen recently demonstrated that the
name of Priam, king of Troy
at the time of the Trojan War, is connected
to the Luwian compound Priimuua,
which means "exceptionally courageous".[16] "The
certainty is growing that Wilusa/Troy belonged to the greater Luwian-speaking community," although it is not
entirely clear whether Luwian was primarily the
official language or in daily colloquial use.[17]
Priam's Treasure, which Heinrich Schliemann claimed to have found at Troy
With the rise of critical history, Troy and the Trojan War
were, for a long time, consigned to the realms of legend. However, the true
location of ancient Troy had from classical times
remained the subject of interest and speculation.
The Troad peninsula
was anticipated to be the location. Early modern travellers
in the 16th and 17th centuries, including Pierre Belon and Pietro Della Valle, had identified
Troy with Alexandria Troas, a ruined town
approximately 20 km south of the currently accepted location.[18] In the
late 18th century, Jean Baptiste LeChevalier had identified a
location near the village of Pınarbaşı, Ezine as the
site of Troy, a mound approximately 5 km south of the currently accepted
location. LeChavalier's location, published in
his Voyage de la Troade, was the most
commonly accepted theory for almost a century.[19]
In 1822, the
Scottish journalist Charles Maclaren was the
first to identify with confidence the position of the city as it is now known.[20][21]
In 1866, Frank Calvert, the brother of
the United States' consular agent in the
region, made extensive surveys and published in scholarly journals his
identification of the hill of New Ilium (which was on farmland owned by his
family) on the same site. The hill, near the city of Çanakkale, was known as Hisarlik.[22]
Schliemann[edit]
In 1868, German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann visited
Calvert and secured permission to excavate Hisarlik. In 1871–73 and
1878–79, he excavated the hill and discovered the ruins of a series of ancient
cities dating from the Bronze Age to the
Roman period. Schliemann declared one of these cities—at first Troy I, later
Troy II—to be the city of Troy, and this identification was widely accepted at
that time. Schliemann's finds at Hisarlik have become
known as Priam's Treasure. They were
acquired from him by the Berlin museums,
but significant doubts about their authenticity persist.
The view from Hisarlık across the plain of Ilium to the Aegean Sea
Schliemann
became interested in digging at the mound of Hisarlik
at the persuasion of Frank Calvert. The British diplomat,
considered a pioneer for the contributions he made to the archaeology of Troy,
spent more than 60 years in the Troad (modern
day Bigapeninsula, Turkey)
conducting field work.[23] As Calvert
was a principal authority on field archaeology in the region, his findings
supplied evidence that Homeric Troy might exist in the hill, and played a major
role in directing Heinrich Schliemann to dig at the Hisarlik.[24]However,
Schliemann downplayed his collaboration with Calvert when taking credit for the
findings, such that Susan Heuek Allen recently
described Schliemann as a "relentlessly self-promoting amateur
archaeologist".[25]
Schliemann's
excavations were condemned by later archaeologists as having destroyed the main
layers of the real Troy. Kenneth W. Harl in the Teaching Company's Great
Ancient Civilizations of Asia Minor lecture series sarcastically
claims that Schliemann's excavations were carried out with such rough methods
that he did to Troy what the Achaeans had been unable to do: destroy and level
the city walls completely to the ground.[26]Other scholars
agree that the damage caused to the site is irreparable.[27] Although
his work is largely rejected, his recorded findings and artifacts added
knowledge regarding ancient Western history.
Dörpfeld and Blegen[edit]
After Schliemann, the site was
further excavated under the direction of Wilhelm Dörpfeld (1893–94) and later Carl Blegen (1932–38). [28][29][page needed] These
excavations have shown that there were at least nine cities built, one on top
of the other, at this site. In his research, Blegen
came to a conclusion that Troy's nine levels could be further divided into
forty-six sublevels .[30]
Korfmann[edit]
In 1988, excavations were resumed by a team from the University of Tübingen and the University of Cincinnati under the
direction of Professor Manfred Korfmann, with Professor Brian Rose overseeing
Post-Bronze Age (Greek, Roman, Byzantine) excavation along the coast of the
Aegean Sea at the Bay of Troy. Possible evidence of a battle was found in the
form of bronze arrowheads and fire-damaged human remains buried in layers dated
to the early 12th century BC. The question of Troy's status in the Bronze-Age world
has been the subject of a sometimes acerbic debate between Korfmann
and the Tübingen historian Frank Kolb in
2001–2002.
In August 1993,
following a magnetic imaging survey of the fields below the fort, a deep ditch
was located and excavated among the ruins of a later Greek and Roman city.
Remains found in the ditch were dated to the late Bronze Age, the alleged time
of Homeric Troy. It is claimed by Korfmann that the
ditch may have once marked the outer defences of a
much larger city than had previously been suspected. The latter city has been
dated by his team to about 1250 BC, and it has been also suggested — based
on recent archeological evidence uncovered by Professor Manfred Korfmann's team — that this was indeed the Homeric city of
Troy.
Recent developments[edit]
The archaeological site of Troy was added
to the UNESCO World Heritage list in
1998.
In summer 2006, the excavations continued under the
direction of Korfmann's colleague Ernst Pernicka, with a new digging permit.[31]
In 2013, an international team made
up of cross-disciplinary experts led by William Aylward,
an archaeologist at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, was to carry out new
excavations. This activity was to be conducted under the auspices of Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University and was to
use the new technique of "molecular archaeology".[32] A few days
before the Wisconsin team was to leave, Turkey cancelled about 100 excavation
permits, including Wisconsin's.[33]
In March 2014, it was announced that
a new excavation would take place to be sponsored by a private company and
carried out by Çanakkale Onsekiz
Mart University. This will be the first Turkish team to excavate and is planned
as a 12-month excavation led by associate professor Rüstem
Aslan. The University's rector stated that "Pieces unearthed in Troy will
contribute to Çanakkale’s culture and tourism. Maybe
it will become one of Turkey’s most important frequented historical places.”[34]
The walls of Troy, first erected in
the Bronze Age between 3000 and 2600 BC, are its main defense. The remains of
the walls have been studied through the aforementioned excavations that shed
light onto the historical city itself and the mythological implications as the
walls protected the citadel during the Trojan War. The
fortifications display the importance of defense to the Trojans and how warfare
is a prominent issue for ancient cities.
The walls
surround the city, extending for several hundred meters, and at the time they
were built they were over 17 feet tall.[35]They were made
of limestone, with watchtowers and brick ramparts, or elevated mounds that
served as protective barriers.[35]Throughout all
of the phases, the walls served as the largest fortification to protect the
Trojans against their enemies. Defense mechanisms like the walls of Troy shed
light on the larger topic of warfare in ancient times, which was a significant
issue in Ancient Greece and in nearby locations such as Asia Minor.
Archeological
plan of the Hisarlik citadel
When Troy was
destroyed each time, the citizens would build upon the previous settlement,
causing the layers to pile on top of one another.[35] The layers
of ruins in the citadel at Hisarlik are
numbered Troy I – Troy IX, with various subdivisions:[note 2]
·
Troy I 3000–2600 BC (Western Anatolian EB 1)
·
Troy II 2600–2250 BC (Western Anatolian EB 2)
·
Troy III 2250–2100 BC (Western Anatolian EB 3 [early])
·
Troy IV 2100–1950 BC (Western Anatolian EB 3 [middle])
·
Troy V: 20th–18th centuries BC (Western Anatolian EB 3
[late])
·
Troy VI: 17th–15th centuries BC
·
Troy VIh: late Bronze Age, 14th
century BC
·
Troy VIIa: c. 1300–1190 BC, most likely setting for Homer's story
·
Troy VIIb1: 12th century
BC
·
Troy VIIb2: 11th century
BC
·
Troy VIIb3: until c. 950
BC
·
Troy VIII: c. 700–85 BC
·
Troy IX: 85 BC–c. AD 500
Troy I–V[edit]
The first city on the site was founded in the 3rd
millennium BC. During the Bronze Age, the site seems
to have been a flourishing mercantile city, since its location allowed for
complete control of the Dardanelles, through which
every merchant ship from the Aegean Sea heading
for the Black Sea had to
pass. Around 1900 BC a mass migration was set
off by the Hittites to the east. Cities to the east
of Troy were destroyed, and although Troy was not burned, the next period shows
a change of culture indicating a new people had taken over Troy.[36] The first
phase of the city is characterized by a smaller citadel, around 300 ft in diameter, with 20 rectangular houses surrounded by
massive walls, towers, and gateways.[35] Troy II
doubled in size and had a lower town and the upper citadel, with the walls
protecting the upper acropolis which housed the megaron-style palace
for the king.[37] The second
phase was destroyed by a large fire, but the Trojans rebuilt, creating a
fortified citadel larger than Troy II, but which had smaller and more condensed
houses, suggesting an economic decline.[35] This trend
of making a larger circuit, or extent of the walls, continued with each
rebuild, for Troy III, IV, and V. Therefore, even in the face of economic
troubles, the walls remained as elaborate as before, indicating their focus on
defense and protection.
Schliemann's Troy II[edit]
When Schliemann came across Troy II,
in 1871, he believed he had found Homer's city. Schliemann and his team
unearthed a large feature he dubbed the Scaean Gate,
a western gate unlike the three previously found leading to the Pergamos.[38] This gate,
as he describes, was the gate that Homer had featured. As Schliemann states in
his publication Troja: "I have
proved that in a remote antiquity there was in the plain of Troy a large city,
destroyed of old by a fearful catastrophe, which had on the hill of Hisarlık only its Acropolis with its temples and a few
other large edifices, southerly, and westerly direction on the site of the
later Ilium; and that, consequently, this city answers perfectly to the Homeric
description of the sacred site of Ilios."[39]
Troy VI and VII[edit]
Main article: Troy VII
Troy VI was
destroyed around 1250 BC, probably by an earthquake. Only a single
arrowhead was found in this layer, and no remains of bodies. However, the town
quickly recovered and was rebuilt in a layout that was more orderly. This
rebuild continued the trend of having a heavily fortified citadel to preserve
the outer rim of the city in the face of earthquakes and sieges of the central
city.[37]
Troy VIIa, which has been dated to the mid-to-late-13th century
BC, is the most often cited candidate for the Troy of Homer. Troy VIIa appears to have been destroyed by war.[40] The
evidence of fire and slaughter around 1184 BC, which brought Troy VIIa to a close, led to this phase being identified with
the city besieged by the Greeks during the Trojan War. This was immortalized in
the Iliad written by
Homer.[41]
Calvert's Thousand-Year Gap[edit]
Initially, the layers of Troy VI and
VII were overlooked entirely, because Schliemann favoured
the burnt city of Troy II. It was not until the need to close "Calvert's
Thousand Year Gap" arose—from Dörpfeld's
discovery of Troy VI—that archaeology turned away from Schliemann's Troy and
began working towards finding Homeric Troy once more.[42]
"Calvert's Thousand Year
Gap" (1800–800 BC) was a period not accounted for by Schliemann's
archaeology and thus constituted a hole in the Trojan timeline. In Homer's
description of the city, a section of one side of the wall is said to be weaker
than the rest.[43]During his
excavation of more than three hundred yards of the wall, Dörpfeld
came across a section very closely resembling the Homeric description of the
weaker section.[44] Dörpfeld was convinced he had found the walls of Homer's
city, and now he would excavate the city itself. Within the walls of this
stratum (Troy VI), much Mycenaean pottery
dating from Late Helladic (LH)
periods III A and III B (c.1400–c.1200 BC) was uncovered, suggesting a relation
between the Trojans and Mycenaeans. The great tower
along the walls seemed likely to be the "Great Tower of Ilios".[45]
The evidence seemed to indicate that Dörpfeld had stumbled upon Ilios,
the city of Homer's epics. Schliemann himself had conceded that Troy VI was
more likely to be the Homeric city, but he never published anything stating so.[46] The only
counter-argument, confirmed initially by Dörpfeld
(who was as passionate as Schliemann about finding Troy), was that the city
appeared to have been destroyed by an earthquake, not by men.[47] There was
little doubt that this was the Troy of which the Mycenaeans
would have known.[48]
Troy VIII[edit]
In 480 BC, the Persian king Xerxes sacrificed
1,000 cattle at the sanctuary of Athena Ilias while
marching through the Hellespontine region towards
Greece.[49] Following
the Persian defeat in 480–479, Ilion and its territory became part of the
continental possessions of Mytilene and
remained under Mytilenaean control until the
unsuccessful Mytilenean revolt in
428–427. Athens liberated the so-called Actaean
cities including Ilion and enrolled these communities in the Delian League. Athenian
influence in the Hellespont waned following the oligarchic coup of 411, and in
that year the Spartan general Mindaros emulated
Xerxes by likewise sacrificing to Athena Ilias.[note
1] From c. 410–399, Ilion was within the sphere of
influence of the local dynasts at Lampsacus(Zenis, his wife Mania, and the usurper Meidias)
who administered the region on behalf of the Persian satrap Pharnabazus.[note
1]
In 399, the
Spartan general Dercylidas expelled
the Greek garrison at Ilion who were controlling the city on behalf of the Lampsacene dynasts during a campaign which rolled back
Persian influence throughout the Troad. Ilion
remained outside the control of the Persian satrapal
administration at Dascylium until
the Peace of Antalcidas in 387–386. In this period of
renewed Persian control c. 387–367, a statue of Ariobarzanes, the satrap
of Hellespontine Phrygia, was erected in
front of the temple of Athena Ilias.[50] In 360–359
the city was briefly controlled by Charidemus of Oreus, a Euboean mercenary leader who
occasionally worked for the Athenians.[51] In 359, he
was expelled by the Athenian Menelaos son of Arrabaios, whom the Ilians honoured with a grant of proxeny—this is
recorded in the earliest civic decree to survive from Ilion.[52] In May
334 Alexander the Great crossed
the Hellespont and came to the city, where he visited the temple of Athena Ilias, made sacrifices at the tombs of the Homeric heroes,
and made the city free and exempt from taxes.[53] According
to the so-called 'Last Plans' of Alexander which became known after his death
in June 323, he had planned to rebuild the temple of Athena Ilias
on a scale that would have surpassed every other temple in the known world.[54]
Antigonus Monophthalmus took control of the Troad
in 311 and created the new city of Antigoneia Troas which was a synoikism of the cities of Skepsis, Kebren, Neandreia, Hamaxitos, Larisa, and Kolonai. In c. 311–306 the koinon of
Athena Ilias was founded from the remaining cities in
the Troad and along the Asian coast of the Dardanelles and soon after succeeded in securing a guarantee
from Antigonus that he would respect their autonomy
and freedom (he had not respected the autonomy of the cities which were synoikized to create Antigoneia).[55] The koinon continued
to function until at least the 1st century AD and primarily consisted of cities
from the Troad, although for a time in the second
half of the 3rd century it also included Myrlea and Chalcedonfrom
the eastern Propontis.[56] The governing body of the koinon was
the synedrion on which each city was represented by two
delegates. The day-to-day running of the synedrion, especially in
relation to its finances, was left to a college of five agonothetai, on which no city ever had more than one
representative. This system of equal (rather than proportional) representation
ensured that no one city could politically dominate the koinon.[57] The primary purpose of the koinon was
to organize the annual Panathenaia festival which was
held at the sanctuary of Athena Ilias. The festival
brought huge numbers of pilgrims to Ilion for the duration of the festival as
well as creating an enormous market (the panegyris)
which attracted traders from across the region.[58] In addition, the koinon financed
new building projects at Ilion, for example a new theatre c. 306 and the
expansion of the sanctuary and temple of Athena Ilias
in the 3rd century, in order to make the city a suitable venue for such a large
festival.[59]
In the period 302–281, Ilion and the Troad were part of the kingdom of Lysimachus, who during
this time helped Ilion synoikize several nearby
communities, thus expanding the city's population and territory.[note
3] Lysimachus was defeated at the Battle of Corupedium in February 281 by Seleucus I Nikator, thus handing
the Seleucid kingdom control of Asia Minor, and in August
or September of 281 when Seleucus passed through the Troad on his way to Lysimachia in the
nearby Thracian Chersonese Ilion passed a decree in honour
of him, indicating the city's new loyalties.[60] In
September Seleucus was assassinated at Lysimachia by Ptolemy Keraunos, making his successor, Antiochus I Soter, the new king. In 280 or soon after
Ilion passed a long decree lavishly honouring
Antiochus in order to cement their relationship with him.[note
4] During this period Ilion still lacked proper
city walls except for the crumbling Troy VI fortifications around the citadel,
and in 278 during the Gallic invasion the city
was easily sacked.[61] Ilion
enjoyed a close relationship with Antiochus for the rest of his reign: for
example, in 274 Antiochus granted land to his friend Aristodikides
of Assos which for tax purposes was to be attached to
the territory of Ilion, and c. 275–269 Ilion passed a decree in honour of Metrodoros of
Amphipolis who had successfully treated the king for a wound he received in
battle.[62]
Troy IX[edit]
Silver tetradrachm from Troy
with head of Athena, c.
165–150 BC
The odeon dates to
the RomanTroy IX and was
renovated by Hadrianin 124 AD.
The city was
destroyed by Sulla's rival, the
Roman general Fimbria, in 85 BC
following an eleven-day siege.[63] Later that
year when Sulla had defeated Fimbria he bestowed benefactions on Ilion for its
loyalty which helped with the city's rebuilding. Ilion reciprocated this act of
generosity by instituting a new civic calendar which took 85 BC as its first
year.[64] However,
the city remained in financial distress for several decades, despite its favoured status with Rome. In the 80s BC, Roman publicani illegally levied taxes on the sacred
estates of Athena Ilias and the city was required to
call on L. Julius Caesar for
restitution; while in 80 BC, the city suffered an attack by pirates.[65] In 77 BC
the costs of running the annual festival of the koinon of
Athena Ilias became too pressing for both Ilion and
the other members of the koinon and
L. Julius Caesar was once again required to arbitrate, this time reforming the
festival so that it would be less of a financial burden.[66] In 74 BC
the Ilians once again demonstrated their loyalty to
Rome by siding with the Roman general Lucullus against Mithridates VI.[67] Following
the final defeat of Mithridates in 63–62, Pompey rewarded
the city's loyalty by becoming the benefactor of Ilion and patron of Athena Ilias.[68] In 48
BC, Julius Caesar likewise
bestowed benefactions on the city, recalling the city's loyalty during the Mithridatic Wars, the city's connection with his cousin L.
Julius Caesar, and the family's claim that they were ultimately descended from
Venus through the Trojan prince Aeneas and
therefore shared kinship with the Ilians.[69]
In 20 BC, the Emperor Augustus visited
Ilion and stayed in the house of a leading citizen, Melanippides
son of Euthydikos.[70] As a
result of his visit, he also financed the restoration and rebuilding of the
sanctuary of Athena Ilias, the bouleuterion (council
house) and the theatre. Soon after work on the theatre was completed in 12–11
BC, Melanippides dedicated a statue of Augustus in
the theatre to record this benefaction.[71]
A new city called Ilium (from
Greek Ilion) was founded on the site in the reign of the Roman Emperor Augustus. It flourished
until the establishment of Constantinople, became a
bishopric in the Roman province Hellespontus (civil Diocese of Asia), but declined
gradually in the Byzantine era
Ecclesiastical history[edit]
No later than the 4th century, it was
a suffragan of the
provincial capital's Metropolitan Archdiocese of Cyzicus, in the sway of the Patriarchate of
Constantinople. Several bishops are historically documented:
·
Orion attended the First Ecumenical Council at Nicaea in 325
·
Leucadius was among the
schismatic group of Arian heretical
bishops abandoning the Council of Sardica and Council of Philippopolis in 344 to
convene their alternative 'synod'.
·
Theosebius partook in
the Council of Chalcedon in 451.
·
Johannes participated in the second Council of Constantinople in 553.
·
Nicetas attended
the Second Council of Nicaea in 787.
·
Georgius participated in
the Council of Constantinople of 869–870
which condemned Patriarch Photios of Constantinople.
Titular see[edit]
The diocese was nominally restored no later than 1926
as Latin Titular bishopric of Ilium (Latin)
/ Ilio (Curiate Italian) / Ilien(sis)
(Latin adjective).
It has been
vacant for decades, having had the following incumbents, so far of the fitting
Episcopal (lowest) rank:
·
Michel-Joseph Bourguignon d’Herbigny, Jesuit Order (S.J.)
(1926.02.11 – 1937.07)
·
James Maguire (1939.10.05 – 1944.10.10)
·
Eugene Joseph McGuinness (1944.11.11 – 1948.02.01)
·
Leo John Steck (1948.03.13 –
1950.06.19)
·
Francesco Maria Franco (1950.07.10 – 1968.02.07)
Location[edit]
A small minority of contemporary writers argue that
Homeric Troy was not at the Hisarlik site, but
elsewhere in Anatolia or outside it—e.g. in England,[72] Pergamum,[73] Scandinavia,[74] or Herzegovina.[75] These
proposals have not been accepted by mainstream scholarship.
Hittite and Egyptian records[edit]
In the 1920s, the Swiss scholar Emil Forrer claimed
that the placenames Wilusa and Taruisa
found in Hittite texts
should be identified with Ilion and Troia,
respectively.[76] He further
noted that the name of Alaksandu, a king of
Wilusa mentioned in a Hittite treaty, is quite similar to Homer's Paris, whose birthname was Alexandros. Subsequent to this, the Tawagalawa letter (CTH 181) was
found to document an unnamed Hittite king's correspondence to the king of
the Ahhiyawa, referring to
an earlier "Wilusa episode" involving hostility on the part of the Ahhiyawa. The Hittite king was long held to be Mursili II (c. 1321–1296),
but, since the 1980s, his son Hattusili III (1265–1240)
is commonly preferred, although his other son Muwatalli (c. 1296–1272)
remains a possibility.
Inscriptions of
the New Kingdom of Egypt also
record a nation T-R-S as one of the Sea Peoples who
attacked Egypt during
the XIXand XX Dynasties. An inscription
at Deir el-Medina records a
victory of Ramesses III over the
Sea Peoples, including one named "Tursha"
(Egyptian: [twrš3]). It is probably the same as the earlier "Teresh" (Egyptian: [trš.w])
on the stele commemorating Merneptah's victory in
a Libyan campaign
around 1220 BC.
These
identifications were rejected by many scholars as being improbable or at least
unprovable. However, Trevor Brycechampioned them in his
1998 book The Kingdom of the Hittites, citing a piece of the Manapa-Tarhunda letter referring
to the kingdom of Wilusa as beyond the land of the Seha
River (the classical Caicus and modern Bakırçay) and near the
land of "Lazpa" (Lesbos). Recent
evidence also adds weight to the theory that Wilusa is identical to
archaeological Troy. Hittite texts mention a water tunnel at Wilusa,
and a water tunnel excavated by Korfmann, previously
thought to be Roman, has been dated to around
2600 BC. The identifications of Wilusa with Troy and of the Ahhiyawa with Homer's Achaeans remain
somewhat controversial but gained enough popularity during the 1990s to be
considered majority opinion. That agrees with metrical evidence
in the Iliad that the
name ᾽Ιλιον (Ilion)
for Troy was formerly Ϝιλιον
(Wilion) with a digamma.
In later legend[edit]
Such was the fame of the Epic Cycle in Roman
and Medieval times that it was built upon to provide a starting point for
various founding myths of
national origins. The most influential, Virgil's Aeneid, traces the
journeys of the Trojan prince Aeneas, supposed
ancestor of the founders of Rome and
the Julio-Claudian dynasty. In a later
era, the heroes of Troy, both those noted in Homer and those invented for the
purpose, often continued to appear in the origin stories of the nations of
Early Medieval Europe.[77][78] The Roman de Troie was common cultural ground for
European dynasties,[79] as a
Trojan pedigree was both gloriously ancient and established an equality with
the ruling class of Rome. A Trojan pedigree could justify the occupation of
parts of Rome's former territories.[77]
On that basis,
the Franks filled the lacunae of their legendary origins with Trojan and
pseudo-Trojan names: in Fredegar's 7th-century
chronicle of Frankish history, Priam appears as the first king of the Franks.[80][full citation needed] The Trojan
origin of France was such an established article of faith that in 1714, the
learned Nicolas Fréret was Bastilled for
showing through historical criticism that the Franks had been Germanic, a sore
point counter to Valois and Bourbon propaganda.[81][full citation needed]
In similar manner, Geoffrey of Monmouth reworked
earlier material such as the Historia Brittonum to trace
the legendary kings of the
Britons from a supposed descendant of Aeneas called Brutus.
Likewise, Snorri Sturluson, in the
prologue to his Icelandic Prose Edda, traced the
genealogy of the ancestral figures in Norse mythology to
characters appearing at Troy in Homer's epic, notably making Thor to be the
son of Memnon. Sturluson referred to these figures as having made a
journey across Europe towards Scandinavia, setting up kingdoms
as they went.
·
Ancient settlements in
Turkey
·
Cities of the ancient
Near East
·
Dardanians (Trojan)
·
Historicity of the Iliad
·
The Golden Bough
(mythology)
·
Trojan language
1.
^ a b c Trōia is the typical Latin name for the
city. Ilium is a more poetic term: Lewis, Charlton T.;
Short, Charles. "Ilium". A Latin Dictionary. Tufts
University: The Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved 2018-04-22.
2.
^ For the new chronological boundaries of Troy VIII-IX
which differ from those used by Blegen see C. B.
Rose, ‘The 1991 Post-Bronze Age excavations at Troia’ Studia Troica 2
(1992) 44 n. 16.
3.
^ Strabo 13.1.26: [Λυσίμαχος]
συνῴκισέ τε εἰς
αὐτὴν τὰς
κύκλῳ πόλεις ἀρχαίας
ἤδη κεκακωμένας.
These probably included Birytis, Gentinos,
and Sigeion: J. M. Cook, The Troad (Oxford 1973) 364. Birytis
and Gentinos are not securely located, but recent
excavations at Sigeion appear to independently
confirm Strabo’s account by indicating an abandonment date soon after c. 300:
Th. Schäfer, Kazı
Sonuçları Toplantısı 32.2
(2009) 410–412, 33.2 (2012) 248–249. This may have been punishment for Sigeion resisting Lysimachus in 302: Diodorus
20.107.4.
4.
^ Inschriften von Ilion 32.
A minority of scholars instead attempt to date this inscription to the reign of
Antiochus III (222–187 BC).
1.
^ Korfmann, Manfred O. (2007). Winkler, Martin M, ed. Troy: From
Homer's Iliad to Hollywood Epic. Oxford, England: Blackwell Publishing Limited.
p. 25. ISBN 1-4051-3183-7. Troy or Ilios (or Wilios) is most probably identical with Wilusa or Truwisa ... mentioned in the Hittite sources
2.
^ Burney, Charles (2004).
"Wilusa". Historical dictionary of the Hittites. Metuchen, N.J:
Scarecrow Press. p. 311. ISBN 0-8108-4936-4.
3.
^ Wood 1985, pp. 54–55.
4.
^ Aşkin,
Mustafa (1981). Troy (2005 rev ed.).
Istanbul: Keskin. p. 34. ISBN 975-7559-37-7.
5.
^ Bryce, Trevor (2005). The Trojans and their neighbours. Taylor & Francis. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-415-34959-8.
6.
^ Aşkin,
Mustafa (2005). Troy: With Legends, Facts, and New Developments. Istanbul:
Keskin Color. p. 72. ISBN 975-7559-37-7. Hisarlik, a village near
the ruins of Troy.
7.
^ Kraft, John C (15 August 1980). "Geomorphic
Reconstructions in the Environs of Ancient Troy". Science (PDF)|format=requires |url= (help). 209:
776–782. JSTOR 1684627.
8.
^ Wood 1985, p. 16.
9.
^ Cenker, Işil Cerem; Thys-Şenocak, Lucienne (2008). Shopes,
Linda; Hamilton, Paula, eds. Oral History and Public Memories.
Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. p. 76. ISBN 1-59213-141-7.
10.
^ Strabo, Geography XIII, I, 36, tr. H. L. Jones, Loeb Classical
Library; Pliny, Natural History, V.33, tr. H. Rackham, W. S. Jones and D. E. Eichholz, Loeb Classical Library.
11.
^ "Geologists
investigate Trojan battlefield". BBC News. 7 February 2003.
12.
^ Kraft, John C. (2001). "Bronze Age Paleogeographies at Ancient Troy". Geological Society of
America.
Retrieved 6 March 2014.
13.
^ Ball, Philip (29 January 2003). "Geologists show
Homer got it right". Nature. Retrieved 6 March 2014.
14.
^ Harbor areas at ancient
Troy: Sedimentology and geomorphology complement Homer's Iliad, Geoscience World (abstract)
15.
^ "Press Release:
Geology corresponds with Homer's description of ancient Troy". University of Delaware.
16.
^ Starke, Frank (1997). "Troia
im Kontext des historisch-politischen und sprachlichen
Umfeldes Kleinasiens im 2. Jahrtausend". Studia Troica. 7:
447–87.
17.
^ Latacz 2004, p. 116
18.
^ Schliemann 1881, p. 184.
19.
^ Schliemann 1881, pp. 184–191.
20.
^ Maclaren, Charles (2010). A Dissertation On the Topography of the Plain of Troy: Including an
Examination of the Opinions of Demetrius, Chevalier, Dr. Clarke, and Major Rennell. Bibliobazaar. ISBN 1-146-73161-2. Retrieved 28 December2014.
21.
^ Schliemann 1881, p. 189.
22.
^ Wood 1985, pp. 42–44.
23.
^ Allen 1995, p. 379.
24.
^ Allen 1995, p. 380.
25.
^ Allen 1999, p. From introductory blurb –not in book itself.
26.
^ Kenneth W. Harl. "Great Ancient Civilizations
of Asia Minor". Retrieved March 7, 2016.
27.
^ Stefan Lovgren. "Is Troy True". Retrieved March 7, 2016.
28.
^ Wilhelm Dörpfeld, Troja und Ilion, Beck & Barth, 1902
29.
^ Carl W. Blegen, Troy;
excavations conducted by the University of Cincinnati, 1932–1938, Princeton
University Press, 1950
30.
^ Allen 1995, p. 259.
31.
^ "Project Troia". University of Tübingen, University of Cincinnati. Archived from the original on 26 May 2014. Retrieved 6 March 2014.
32.
^ "UW-Madison
archaeologists to mount new expedition to Troy".
33.
^ Simmons, Dan (July 22, 2013). "UW-Madison
archaeology trip to Troy postponed until next summer". Wisconsin State Journal. Retrieved 6
May 2014.
34.
^ Çanakkale –
Dogan News Agency (13 March 2014). "New term
excavations start at city of Troy with Turkish team". hurriyetdailynews.com. Hurriyet daily News. Retrieved 28 December 2014.
35.
^ a b c d e the
Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica (November 22,
2016). "Troy".
36.
^ Mellaart, James
(January 1958). "The end of the early Bronze Age in Anatolia and the
Aegean". American Journal of
Archaeology. 62 (1):
9–33. doi:10.2307/500459. JSTOR 500459.
37.
^ a b Neer, Richard T. (2012). Greek Art and
Archaeology. New York: Thames & Hudson. p. 21. ISBN 9780500288771.
38.
^ Schliemann 1881, p. 75
39.
^ Schliemann 1881, p. 277
40.
^ Bauer 2007, pp. 253–58.
41.
^ "Archaeological Site
of Troy – UNESCO World Heritage Centre". Whc.unesco.org. 1998-12-02. Retrieved 2012-08-15.
42.
^ Allen 1995, p. 142.
43.
^ Homer. "Iliad". XVI,
44.
^ Wood 1985, p. 89.
45.
^ Homer. "Iliad". VI, 386
46.
^ Allen 1995, p. 143.
47.
^ Wood 1985, p. 228.
48.
^ Wood 1985, p. 223.
49.
^ Herodotus 7.43.
50.
^ Diodorus 17.17.6.
51.
^ Demosthenes 23.154–157; Aeneas Tacticus
24.3–14.
52.
^ Inschriften von Ilion 23.
53.
^ Arrian, Anabasis 1.11–12,
Diodorus Siculus 17.17–18,
Plutarch, Life of Alexander 15, Justin 9.5.12, Strabo 13.1.26,
32.
54.
^ Diodorus 18.4.5.
55.
^ Inschriften von Ilion 1.
56.
^ Myrlea and Calchedon: Inschriften von Ilion
5–6.
57.
^ D. Knoepfler, ‘Les agonothètes de la Confédération d’Athéna Ilias: une interpretation nouvelle des données
épigraphiques et ses conséquences pour la chronologie des émissions monétaires du Koinon’ Studi Ellenistici 24
(2010) 33–62.
58.
^ Panegyris: L.
Robert, Monnaies antiques en
Troade (Paris 1966) 18–46.
59.
^ Theatre: Inschriften von
Ilion 1. Temple: C. B. Rose, ‘The Temple of Athena at Ilion’ Studia Troica 13
(2003) 27–88 and contra D. Hertel, ‘Zum Heiligtum der Athena Ilias von Troia IX und zur frühhellenistischen Stadtanlage von Ilion’ ArchAnz (2004)
177–205.
60.
^ Inschriften von Ilion 31.
61.
^ Strabo 13.1.27.
62.
^ Inschriften von Ilion 33 (Aristodikides), 34 (Metrodoros).
63.
^ Strabo 13.1.27, Livy, Periochae 83.
64.
^ Inschriften von
Ilion 10.2–3.
65.
^ Inchriften von
Ilion 71 (publicani), 73 (pirates).
66.
^ Inschriften von
Ilion 10.
67.
^ Plutarch, Lucullus 10.3, 12.2.
68.
^ Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum 46.1565.
69.
^ Lucan, Pharsalia 9.964–999,
Suetonius, Divus Julius 79.3.
70.
^ Dio Cassius 54.7, Inschriften von Ilion 83.
71.
^ Inschriften von
Ilion 83.
72.
^ Wilkens, Iman Jacobs (1990). Where Troy Once Stood: The Mystery of
Homer's Iliad and Odyssey revealed. Groningen: Rider & Co. p. 68. ISBN 0-7126-2463-5.
73.
^ Lascelles, John (2005). Troy: The World
Deceived. Homer's Guide to Pergamum. Victoria, B.C.: Trafford Publishing (self-published). p. 34. ISBN 1-4120-5829-5.
74.
^ Vinci, Felice (2005). The Baltic Origins of
Homer's Epic Tales: The Iliad, the Odyssey, and the Migration of Myth. Rochester, Vt.: Inner Traditions – Bear
& Company. ISBN 1-5947-7052-2.
75.
^ Price, Roberto Salinas (2006). Homeric
Whispers: Intimations of Orthodoxy in the Iliad and Odyssey. San Antonio, Texas: Scylax Press.
p. 19. ISBN 0-9108-6511-6.
76.
^ Carter & Morris 1995, pp. 34–35
77.
^ a b Huppert,
George (1965). "The Trojan Franks and their Critics". Studies in
the Renaissance. 12: 227–41. doi:10.2307/2857076.
78.
^ Hay, Denys (1968). Europe: The Emergence of
an Idea. Edinburgh: Edinburgh U.P. pp. 49–50.
79.
^ A. Joly first traced the career of the Roman
de Troie in Benoit de Sainte-More et le Roman de Troie (Paris
1871).
80.
^ Exinde origo Francorum fuit. Priamo primo rege habuerant.
81.
^ Larousse du XIXe siècle sub
"Fréret", noted by Huppert 1965.
Troyat 's sister projects
·
Official website
·
General
·
Troia Projekt and CERHAS (2013). "Welcome to
Troy". Troy. University of Cincinnati. Retrieved 8
August 2013.
·
Archaeology
·
Institut für Ur- und Frühgeschichte und Archäologie des Mittelalters, Universität Tübingen, and
Department of Classics, University of Cincinnati, Ohio (2010). "Troia
and the Troad – Archaeology of a Region: The new
excavations at Troy". Project Troia.
Institut für Ur- u. Frühgeschichte. Archived from the original on 19 May
2005. Retrieved 8 August 2013.
·
Troia Project
(2004). "Reconstructions". Troia VR. University of Tübingen.
Archived from the original on 30
August 2013. Retrieved 8 August 2013.
·
Heath, Sebastian; Tekkök, Billur, eds. (2007–2009). "Greek, Roman and
Byzantine Pottery at Ilion (Troia)". Classics
Department, University of Cincinnati. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
·
Heath, Sebastian; Mannsperger,
Dietrich; Rose, C. Brian; Wallrodt, John
(2013). "Coins from Ilion (Troia)". Classics
Department, University of Cincinnati. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
·
Rutter, Jeremy B. (2013). "Welcome". Aegean
Prehistoric Archaeology. Dartmouth College. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
·
"Lesson 23: Troy
VI".
·
"Lesson 27: Troy VII
and the Historicity of the Trojan War".
·
Geography
·
Thomas, Neil (2003). "Geology corresponds
with Homer's description of ancient Troy". UDaily Archive. University of Delaware. Retrieved 10
August 2013.
·
Ecclesiastical history
·
Pius Bonifacius Gams, Series
episcoporum Ecclesiae Catholicae,
Leipzig 1931, p. 445
·
Michel Lequien, Oriens christianus in quatuor Patriarchatus digestus, Paris 1740, vol. I, coll. 775–778
Bibliography –
Works cited
·
Allen, Susan (July 1995). "'Finding the Walls of
Troy': Frank Calvert, Excavator". American
Journal of Archaeology. 99 (3): 379–407. doi:10.2307/506941.
Retrieved 30 January 2013.
·
Allen, Susan Heuck (1999). Finding the Walls of
Troy: Frank Calvert and Heinrich Schliemann at Hisarlik. University of
California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20868-1.
·
Bauer, Susan Wise (2007). "The Battle for
Troy". The History of the
Ancient World: From the Earliest Accounts to the Fall
of Rome. Norton. pp. 253–58. ISBN 9780393070897.
·
Carter, Jane Burr; Morris, Sarah P., eds. (1995). The
Ages of Homer. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-71208-1.
·
Latacz, Joachim (2004). Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution of
an Old Mystery. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-926308-6
·
Schliemann, Henry (1881). Ilios. The city and country of
the Trojans: the results of researches and discoveries on the site of Troy and
through the Troad in the years 1871–72–73–78–79. New York:
Harper & Brothers.
·
Wood, Michael (1985). In Search of the Trojan
War. BBC Books; First Thus edition. ISBN 978-0563201618.
·
Easton, D.F.; Hawkins, J.D.; Sherratt,
A.G.; Sherratt, E.S. (2002). "Troy in Recent
Perspective". Anatolian Studies. 52: 75–109. doi:10.2307/3643078.
·
Shepard, Alan; Powell, Stephen D., eds.
(2004). Fantasies of Troy: Classical Tales and the Social Imaginary in
Medieval and Early Modern Europe. Toronto: Centre for Reformation and
Renaissance Studies.
·
Finding the walls of Troy : Frank Calvert and
Heinrich Schliemann at Hisarlík (book)
https://lccn.loc.gov/98013101
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